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Philosophy of natural science

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1 natural

['næ ərəl] 1. adjective
1) (of or produced by nature, not made by men: Coal, oil etc are natural resources; Wild animals are happier in their natural state than in a zoo.) naraven

2) (born in a person: natural beauty; He had a natural ability for music.) prirojen

3) ((of manner) simple, without pretence: a nice, natural smile.) pristen

4) (normal; as one would expect: It's quite natural for a boy of his age to be interested in girls.) normalno

5) (of a musical note, not sharp or flat: G natural is lower in pitch than G sharp.) razvezan
2. noun
1) (a person who is naturally good at something.) rojen za kaj

2) (in music (a sign () indicating) a note which is not to be played sharp or flat.) razvezaj

•

- naturalist
- naturally
- natural gas
- natural history
- natural resources
* * *
I [naečərəl]
adjective ( naturally adverb)

naraven; resničen, pristen; fizičen; prirojen, lasten (to); rojen (govornik), od rojstva (bebec); naraven, nezakonski (otrok, oče); music razvezen

to come natural to — biti komu lahko, biti komu prirojeno

to die a natural death — umreti naravne smrti

natural gas — zemeljski plin

natural history — prirodopis

natural law — naravni zakon

natural philosophy — fizika

natural science — naravoslovje

natural selection — naravna selekcija (po Darwinu)

music natural sign — razvezaj

natural spring — zdravilni vrelec

music natural scale — C dur

natural treasures — naravne lepote

natural weapons — nohti, zobje, pesti
II [naečərəl]
noun

bebec; naravni dar; colloquially rojen genij; jasna stvar ( for za); music bela tipka, nota brez predznaka, razvezaj

English-Slovenian dictionary > natural
2 natural

natural ['nætʃərəl]

1 adjective

(a) (created by or existing in nature → scenery, environment, light, resources, process) naturel;

∎ a natural harbour un port naturel;

∎ in a natural state à l'état naturel;

∎ the natural world la nature

(b) (not artificial → wood, finish) naturel;

∎ she's a natural redhead c'est une vraie rousse

(c) (normal → explanation, desire, wish) naturel, normal;

∎ it's only natural for her to be worried or that she should be worried il est tout à fait normal ou il est tout naturel qu'elle se fasse du souci;

∎ I'm sure there's a perfectly natural explanation for it je suis sûr qu'on peut l'expliquer de façon tout à fait naturelle;

∎ death from natural causes mort f naturelle;

∎ in the natural course of events dans le cours normal des choses;

∎ one's or the natural reaction is to… la réaction instinctive est de…;

∎ as is (only) natural comme de juste

(d) (unaffected → person, manner) naturel, simple

(e) (innate → talent) inné, naturel;

∎ she's a natural organizer c'est une organisatrice-née, elle a un sens inné de l'organisation

(f) (free of additives) naturel

(g) (child) naturel

(h) (real → parents) naturel

(i) Music naturel; (after accidental) bécarre (inv);

∎ G natural sol bécarre

(j) Mathematics naturel

2 adverb

∎ familiar try to act natural! soyez naturel!^□

3 noun

(a) familiar (gifted person)

∎ she's a natural elle a ça dans le sang;

∎ he's a natural for the job il a le profil de l'emploi^□ ;

∎ she's a natural for the part elle est faite pour ce rôle^□

(b) Music bécarre m

►► natural break (in film, text) coupure f qui va de soi;

∎ they reached a natural break in the meeting ils arrivèrent à une étape de la réunion où il était naturel de faire une pause;

natural childbirth accouchement m naturel;

natural disaster catastrophe f naturelle;

natural economy économie f non monétaire;

natural family planning = contraception par des moyens naturels;

Physics & Electricity natural frequency fréquence f propre;

natural gas gaz m naturel;

natural historian naturaliste mf;

natural history histoire f naturelle;

natural immunity immunité f naturelle;

natural justice droits mpl naturels;

natural language langage m naturel, langue f naturelle;

natural language processing traitement m (automatique) du langage naturel;

natural law loi f naturelle;

natural life (of person, animal, company) durée f de vie; (of product) durée f utile;

∎ for the rest of his/her natural life (sentenced) à perpétuité;

Mathematics natural logarithm logarithme m naturel ou népérien;

natural medicine médecine f douce ou naturelle, physiothérapie f;

natural number nombre m naturel;

Law natural person personne f physique ou naturelle;

old-fashioned Physics natural philosophy physique f;

natural resources ressources fpl naturelles;

natural science (UNCOUNT) sciences fpl naturelles;

∎ botany is a natural science la botanique fait partie des sciences naturelles;

natural selection sélection f naturelle;

the Natural State = surnom donné à l'Arkansas;

natural theology théologie f naturelle;

Economics & Industry natural wastage départs mpl volontaires et en retraite;

natural yoghurt yaourt m nature

✾ Film 'Natural Born Killers' Stone 'Tueurs-nés'

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > natural
3 ♦ natural

♦ natural /ˈnætʃrəl/
A a.

1 naturale; innato; congenito; spontaneo; della natura: natural food, alimento naturale; a natural blonde, una bionda naturale; a natural fibre, una fibra naturale; natural harbour, porto naturale; natural life, vita naturale; the natural world, il mondo della natura; He addressed me in a natural voice, si rivolse a me con voce naturale; natural phenomena, fenomeni naturali; natural forces, le forze della natura; natural history, storia naturale; natural language, linguaggio naturale; (leg.) natural law, diritto naturale; natural science, scienze naturali; (biol.) natural selection, selezione naturale; natural talents, talenti naturali; natural gas, gas naturale; (mus.) natural key, chiave naturale; (leg.) a natural son, un figlio naturale; a natural gift, un dono naturale; una qualità innata; It's only natural that you should be worried, è più che normale che tu sia preoccupato

2 per natura; nato: a natural comedian, un commediante nato

B n.

1 (fam.) persona con un dono naturale (per fare qc.): As a race car driver, he's a natural, è un pilota da corsa nato

2 (mus., = natural sign) nota naturale; bequadro

3 persona (o cosa) adatta allo scopo, che va benissimo

4 ( slang USA) condanna a sette anni di carcere

● natural-born, di nascita; ( USA) per natura; nato: ( USA) a natural-born actor, un attore nato; a natural-born Scotsman, uno scozzese di nascita □ (med.) natural childbirth, parto naturale; parto eutocico □ a natural historian, un naturalista □ (comput.) natural language processing, elaborazione del linguaggio naturale □ ( the) natural man, l'uomo allo stato di natura □ (econ.) natural monopoly, monopolio naturale □ (mat.) natural number, numero naturale □ (leg.) a natural person, una persona fisica □ (arc.) natural philosopher, fisico □ (arc.) natural philosophy, fisica □ (med.) natural practitioner, medico omeopatico; omeopata □ (econ.) natural rate of unemployment, tasso naturale di disoccupazione □ to die a natural death, morire di morte naturale □ for the term (o rest) of one's natural life, vita natural durante □ It comes natural to me, mi viene naturale (o spontaneo).

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ natural
4 natural

natural [ˊnætʃǝrəl]

1. a

1) есте́ственный, приро́дный;

natural power си́лы приро́ды
;

natural resources приро́дные бога́тства
;

natural weapons есте́ственное ору́жие (кулаки, зубы и т.п.)
;

natural selection биол. есте́ственный отбо́р
;

natural phenomena явле́ния приро́ды

2) настоя́щий, натура́льный;

natural food натура́льные (пищевы́е) проду́кты
;

natural flowers живы́е цветы́
;

natural teeth «свои́» зу́бы

3) есте́ственный, обы́чный;

to die a natural death умере́ть есте́ственной сме́ртью
;

the term of one's natural life вся жизнь
;

for the rest of one's natural (life) до конца́ свои́х дней

4) есте́ственный, относя́щийся к естествозна́нию;

natural history есте́ственная исто́рия
;

natural philosophy уст. фи́зика; натурфилосо́фия
;

natural science есте́ственные нау́ки
;

natural dialectics диале́ктика приро́ды

5) ди́кий, некультиви́рованный; необрабо́танный;

natural growth ди́кая расти́тельность
;

natural steel незакалённая сталь

6) обы́чный, норма́льный; поня́тный;

natural mistake поня́тная, есте́ственная оши́бка

7) непринуждённый, есте́ственный;

it comes natural to him

а) э́то получа́ется у него́ есте́ственно;

б) э́то легко́ ему́ даётся;

he is a very natural person он о́чень непосре́дственный челове́к

8) прису́щий; врождённый;

a natural comedian прирождённый ко́мик
;

with the bravery natural to him с прису́щей ему́ хра́бростью

9) о́чень похо́жий, как живо́й ( о портрете и т.п.)

10) земно́й, физи́ческий;

natural world реа́льный мир

11) внебра́чный, незаконнорождённый;

natural child внебра́чный ребёнок
;

natural son побо́чный сын

2. n

1) разг. са́мое подходя́щее; са́мый подходя́щий челове́к (для чего-л.);

he is a natural for art он со́здан для иску́сства

2) уст. идио́т от рожде́ния; дурачо́к

3) муз. бека́р, знак бека́ра

4) муз. ключ C

◊
it's a natural! превосхо́дно!

Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > natural
5 Philosophy

   1) There Are Ideas That Have Their Own True and Immutable Nature

   And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)

   2) Examine What Is within Our Reach

   Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)

   3) Modern Philosophy Starts with the Cartesian Catastrophe

   As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)

   4) The Rightful Claims of Philosophy

   It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the inﬂuence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic inﬂuences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)

   5) The Philosophy of Philosophy

   Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)

   6) Philosophy Is a Field Which Has Certain Central Questions

   I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)

   7) The Central Task of Philosophy

   What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.

   This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).

   The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....

   Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)

   8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science

   In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)

   9) The Enduring Value of Philosophy

   Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....

   Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)

    10) The Distinction between Dionysian Man and Apollonian Man, between Art and Creativity and Reason and Self- Control

   In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy
6 natural

'næ ərəl
1. adjective
1) (of or produced by nature, not made by men: Coal, oil etc are natural resources; Wild animals are happier in their natural state than in a zoo.) natural

2) (born in a person: natural beauty; He had a natural ability for music.) natural, innato

3) ((of manner) simple, without pretence: a nice, natural smile.) natural

4) (normal; as one would expect: It's quite natural for a boy of his age to be interested in girls.) natural, normal

5) (of a musical note, not sharp or flat: G natural is lower in pitch than G sharp.) natural

2. noun
1) (a person who is naturally good at something.) nato

2) (in music (a sign () indicating) a note which is not to be played sharp or flat.) becuadro

•

- naturalist
- naturally
- natural gas
- natural history
- natural resources

natural adj

1. natural

natural fibres are better than man made ones las fibras naturales son mejores que las sintéticas

2. normal

it's natural to feel afraid of the dark es normal tener miedo a la oscuridad

natural adjetivo 1
a) ‹fenómeno/ingrediente› natural;
‹ fruta› fresh;
◊ al natural ‹ mejillones› in brine

b) ( a temperatura ambiente) ‹cerveza/gaseosa› unchilled

c) (Mús) natural
2
a) ( espontáneo) ‹gesto/persona› natural

b) ( inherente) natural, innate

c) ( normal) natural;

◊ me parece lo más natural del mundo it seems perfectly natural to me
3 (frml) ( nativo) ser natural de to be a native of, to come from ■ sustantivo masculino
a) ( carácter) nature

b) ( nativo) native;

◊ los naturales del lugar people from the area

natural
I adjetivo
1 natural: es una persona muy natural, he's a very natural person (no artificial, fresco) fresh: es una rosa natural, it's a fresh rose
a tamaño natural, life-size
2 (normal, lógico) me parece natural, it seems natural to me
3 (nativo) soy natural de Castilla, I come from Castilla
4 Mat natural
II sustantivo masculino
1 (temperamento, inclinación) nature
2 Arte life: lo pintó del natural, he painted it from life
III mf (oriundo) native ' natural' also found in these entries: Spanish: canal - cien - cruda - crudo - día - emanación - expolio - hijo - limonada - lógica - lógico - luz - mirador - muerte - nata - nato - reserva - sencilla - sencillo - sobrexplotación - tamaña - tamaño - turba - anfiteatro - café - cataclismo - en - franco - gruta - llano - museo - naturalidad - naturismo - naturista - pantano - parque - recurso - riqueza - siniestro English: border - born - curl - designate - fair - full-scale - hail - life - life-size - life-sized - lifelike - mention - native - natural - natural childbirth - naturally - nature reserve - nature trail - plain - process - reserve - successor - sunlight - unaffected - unnatural - unnaturally - unspoilt - wear - wild - wildlife park - die - dry - effortless - environment - flair - full - good - may - might - nature - pond - resource - should - unspoiled - wastage - wilderness

natural

tr['næʧərəl]

adjective

1 natural

■ the natural world el mundo natural

2 (born) nato,-a

■ he's a natural footballer es un futbolista nato

3 (usual) natural, normal

■ it's only natural to feel afraid es normal tener miedo

noun

1 SMALLMUSIC/SMALL (note) nota natural; (sign) becuadro

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to die of natural causes morir por causas naturales, fallecer de muerte natural

natural childbirth parto natural

natural gas gas nombre masculino natural

natural history historia natural

natural resources recursos nombre masculino plural naturales

natural science ciencias nombre femenino plural naturales

natural selection selección nombre femenino natural

natural wastage reducción de plantilla consistente en no substituir a los que se jubilen o se marchen

natural ['næʧərəl] adj

1) : natural, de la naturaleza

natural woodlands: bosques naturales

natural childbirth: parto natural

2) innate: innato, natural

3) unaffected: natural, sin afectación

4) lifelike: natural, vivo

natural n

to be a natural : tener un talento innato (para algo)

natural

adj.

• innato, -a adj.

• nacido, -a adj.

• nativo, -a adj.

• natural adj.

• normal adj.

• propio, -a adj.

• tenue adj.

n.

• becuadro s.m.

• imbécil s.m.

I 'nætʃrəl
adjective

1) ( as in nature) natural

these animals are natural enemies — estos animales son enemigos por naturaleza

I'm a natural blonde — soy rubia natural

death from natural causes — muerte f natural or por causas naturales

2)

a) <talent/propensity> innato

b) (before n) < leaderoublemaker> nato, por naturaleza

c) <reaction/response> natural, normal; < successor> lógico

she's the natural choice for the job — lo natural es que le ofrezcan el puesto a ella

it is natural THAT — es natural que (+ subj)

3) ( not forced) <warmth/enthusiasm/style> natural

4) ( related by blood) <child/parent> biológico

II

noun ( person)

to be a natural — tener* un talento innato

III

adverb

act natural — (colloq) disimula

['nætʃrǝl]
1. ADJ

1) (=occurring naturally) [environment, substance, disaster, remedy] natural

she isn't a natural blonde — no es rubia natural

he died of natural causes — murió de muerte natural

the rest of his natural life — el resto de sus días
die I, 1)
2) (=understandable) [reaction, behaviour, feeling] natural, normal; [mistake] comprensible; [explanation] lógico y natural

it's a perfectly natural mistake to make — es un error totalmente comprensible

there is a perfectly natural explanation — hay una explicación perfectamente lógica y natural

it's only natural — es normal or natural

it's only natural that she should be upset — es normal or natural que esté disgustada

3) (=inborn) [ability, talent] innato; [reaction, fear] instintivo

he had a natural flair for business — tenía un don innato para los negocios

she is a natural leader/athlete — es una líder/atleta innata

natural instinct — instinto m natural

4) (=relaxed, unforced) [person, manner, charm] natural

I was able to be very natural with him — con él pude ser yo mismo

5) (=biological) [father, mother, child] biológico

6) (Mus) natural

2. N

1) (=person)

she's a natural with computers — tiene un don innato para los ordenadores

2) (Mus) (=note) nota f natural; (=sign) becuadro m

3.

CPD

natural causes NPL —

to die of natural causes — morir de muerte natural

natural childbirth N — parto m natural

natural disaster N — desastre m natural

natural gas N — gas m natural

natural history N — historia f natural

natural law N — ley f natural

natural number N — (Math) número m natural

natural philosophy N — filosofía f natural

natural resources NPL — recursos mpl naturales

natural science N — (uncount) ciencias fpl naturales; (count) ciencia f de la naturaleza

natural selection N — selección f natural

by natural selection — por selección natural

natural wastage N — (Brit) (Ind) bajas voluntarias de los empleados de una empresa, y cuyos puestos quedan sin cubrir

the jobs will be lost through natural wastage — los puestos irán desapareciendo a medida que se produzcan bajas voluntarias

* * *

I ['nætʃrəl]
adjective

1) ( as in nature) natural

these animals are natural enemies — estos animales son enemigos por naturaleza

I'm a natural blonde — soy rubia natural

death from natural causes — muerte f natural or por causas naturales

2)

a) <talent/propensity> innato

b) (before n) <leader/troublemaker> nato, por naturaleza

c) <reaction/response> natural, normal; < successor> lógico

she's the natural choice for the job — lo natural es que le ofrezcan el puesto a ella

it is natural THAT — es natural que (+ subj)

3) ( not forced) <warmth/enthusiasm/style> natural

4) ( related by blood) <child/parent> biológico

II

noun ( person)

to be a natural — tener* un talento innato

III

adverb

act natural — (colloq) disimula

English-spanish dictionary > natural
7 natural

1) естественный

2) закономерный
3) кишечный колбасный
4) натуральный
5) незарегулированный
6) природный
7) <acoust.> бекар
8) собственный
9) ествественный
10) понятный
11) промысловый
– natural abrasive
– natural ageing
– natural bitumen
– natural boundary
– natural circulation
– natural cooling
– natural damping
– natural decay
– natural diamond
– natural draft
– natural dye
– natural dye-stuff
– natural flow
– natural frequency
– natural fuel
– natural gas
– natural gasoline
– natural ground
– natural injection
– natural iron
– natural isotope
– natural latex
– natural light
– natural lighting
– natural logarithm
– natural magnet
– natural magnetism
– natural material
– natural mode
– natural number
– natural oscillations
– natural paint
– natural philosophy
– natural polymer
– natural radioactivity
– natural resources
– natural rubber
– natural science
– natural selection
– natural tolerance
– natural ventilation
– natural water
– natural wave-length
– natural wear-and-tear
– natural wood
– raw natural gas
– raw natural gasoline

beneficiate natural graphite — извлекать графит

natural equation of a curve — натуральное уравнение кривой

natural period of vibration — собственный период колебаний

natural resonant frequency — частота свободных колебаний

natural sausage casing — кишечная колбасная оболочка

natural surface of ground — уровень стоянки

natural textile fiber — натуральное текстильное волокно

natural unit of information — натуральная единица информации

Англо-русский технический словарь > natural
8 natural

adj. natuurlijk, van de natuur; stoffelijk
--------
n. natuurtalent

natural¹

[ nætsjrəl] 〈 zelfstandig naamwoord〉

1 〈voornamelijk enkelvoud; informeel〉 natuurtalent ⇒ favoriet, meest geschikte persoon; 〈 figuurlijk〉 kanspaard

2 〈 muziek〉 stamtoon

3 idioot ⇒ debiel, zwakzinnige

♦voorbeelden:

1   John's a natural for the job • John is geknipt voor die baan

————————

natural²

I 〈 bijvoeglijk naamwoord〉

1 natuurlijk ⇒ natuur-

2 aangeboren ⇒ ingeschapen

3 normaal ⇒ gewoon, begrijpelijk

4 ongedwongen ⇒ ongekunsteld

♦voorbeelden:

1   natural childbirth • natuurlijke geboorte

     natural death • natuurlijke dood

     natural forces/phenomena • natuurverschijnselen

     natural gas • aardgas

     natural history • natuurlijke historie, biologie

     natural law • natuurwet

     natural philosophy • natuurkunde

     natural resources • natuurlijke hulpbronnen/rijkdommen

     natural science • natuurwetenschap

¶ natural numbers • natuurlijke getallen

     learning languages comes natural to him • talen leren gaat hem heel gemakkelijk af

II 〈 bijvoeglijk naamwoord, attributief〉

1 geboren ⇒ van nature

2 natuurlijk ⇒ onecht, buitenechtelijk

3 echt ⇒ natuurlijk 〈 van familiebetrekkingen〉

♦voorbeelden:

1   he's a natural linguist • hij heeft een talenknobbel

3   John never knew his natural parents • John heeft zijn echte ouders nooit gekend

English-Dutch dictionary > natural
9 natural philosophy

x. 자연철학(지금의 natural science 특히 physics)

English-Korean dictionary > natural philosophy
10 natural

{'nætʃrəl}
I. 1. естествен, природен, натурален
NATURAL gas естествен/природен газ
NATURAL selection биол. естествен подбор
NATURAL history/science естествознание, естествени науки
NATURAL forces/phenomena природни сили/явления
someone's NATURAL life целият живот на някого
2. естествен, истински, верен, реален
3. вроден, присъщ, естествен, непристорен
NATURAL poet, etc. роден поет и пр.
with the bravery NATURAL to him с присъщата за него храброст
it comes NATURAL to him удава му се, това му е вродено
4. самороден
5. непросветен, див
6. роден, истински (за родител и пр.)
7. извънбрачен (за дете)
8. муз. основна неалтерована (за музикална степен)
II. 1. идиот по рождение
2. муз. основна неалтерована музикална степен, бекар
3. разг. природно надарен човек (for)
he's a NATURAL for the job той е роден за тази работа
4. разг. нещо очевидно подходящо, нещо, което ще има успех

* * *

{'natshrъl} I. a 1. естествен, природен, натурален; natural gas есте

* * *

самороден; присъщ; природен; верен; вроден; див; естествен; закономерен; натурален; нормален; непросветен;

* * *
1. he's a natural for the job той е роден за тази работа 2. i. естествен, природен, натурален 3. ii. идиот по рождение 4. it comes natural to him удава му се, това му е вродено 5. natural forces/phenomena природни сили/явления 6. natural gas естествен/природен газ 7. natural history/science естествознание, естествени науки 8. natural poet, etc. роден поет и пр 9. natural selection биол. естествен подбор 10. someone's natural life целият живот на някого 11. with the bravery natural to him с присъщата за него храброст 12. вроден, присъщ, естествен, непристорен 13. естествен, истински, верен, реален 14. извънбрачен (за дете) 15. муз. основна неалтерована (за музикална степен) 16. муз. основна неалтерована музикална степен, бекар 17. непросветен, див 18. разг. нещо очевидно подходящо, нещо, което ще има успех 19. разг. природно надарен човек (for) 20. роден, истински (за родител и пр.) 21. самороден
* * *

natural[´nætʃərəl] I. adj 1. естествен, природен, натурален;
atural increase естествен прираст;
atural selection естествен подбор;
atural history естествена история;
atural science естествознание, естествени науки;
atural weapons естествено оръжие (зъби, нокти, юмруци);
atural forces ( phenomena) природни сили (явления);
atural resources природни ресурси; (за човек) вродени, присъщи качества;
atural philosophy ост. физика;
atural philosopher ост. физик;
atural dialectics диалектика на природата; the term of o.'s
atural life цял живот; 2. естествен, истински, верен; most
atural representation of life най-вярно представяне на живота; 3. вроден, присъщ;
atural charm естествен чар;
atural talents ( gifts) вроден талант (дарба);
atural linguist ( poet) роден езиковед (поет); with the bravery
atural to him с присъща за него храброст; it comes
atural to him удава му се; това му е вродено; 4. самороден; 5. непросветен, див; нецивилизован; 6. нормален; 7. извънбрачен; 8. муз. основен (за тон);
atural justice правосъдие, основано на изконни човешки принципи; естествено право; неписано правосъдие;
atural key ключ С; II. n 1. идиот; 2. муз. основен тон; бекар; 3. ам. разг. надарен човек, талант; 4. карти печеливша комбинация при първо раздаване; it's a
atural прен. чудо нещо; лесна работа.

English-Bulgarian dictionary > natural
11 philosophy

fɪˈlɔsəfɪ сущ.
1) философия;
философская система, доктрина the philosophy of Spinoza ≈ философия Спинозы the philosophy of science ≈ философия науки
2) философский подход к жизни;
спокойное отношение к жизни философия философская система, философская основа - natural * естественные науки;
физика основные принципы;
основной подход - design * принципы конструирования - * of measurement методика измерений философский подход к жизни - * of life житейская философия;
уравновешенность, спокойствие corporate ~ принципы деятельности корпорации legal ~ философия права philosophy философия ~ философский подход к жизни ~ of law философия права training ~ метод обучения

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > philosophy
12 Bibliography

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■ Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf.

■ Smith, E. E. (1988). Concepts and thought. In J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 19-49). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)

■ Solso, R. L. (1974). Theories of retrieval. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

■ Spencer, H. (1896). The principles of psychology. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.

■ Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. New York: Oxford University Press.

■ Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

■ Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg, Thinking and problem solving. San Diego: Academic Press.

■ Sternberg, R. J., & J. E. Davidson (1985). Cognitive development in gifted and talented. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented (pp. 103-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

■ Storr, A. (1993). The dynamics of creation. New York: Ballantine Books. (Originally published in 1972.)

■ Stumpf, S. E. (1994). Philosophy: History and problems (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

■ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Random House/Vintage Books.

■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.

■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)

■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.

■ Titchener, E. B. (1914). A primer of psychology. New York: Macmillan.

■ Toulmin, S. (1957). The philosophy of science. London: Hutchinson.

■ Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organisation of memory. London: Academic Press.

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■ Turkle, S. (1984). Computers and the second self: Computers and the human spirit. New York: Simon & Schuster.

■ Tyler, S. A. (1978). The said and the unsaid: Mind, meaning, and culture. New York: Academic Press.

■ van Heijenoort (Ed.) (1967). From Frege to Goedel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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■ Wagman, M. (1991b). Cognitive science and concepts of mind: Toward a general theory of human and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.

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Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
13 Psychology

   1) The Knowledge of Ourselves

   We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)

   2) As a Science, Psychology Is Distinct

   The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)

   3) Psychology Can Never Be an Exact Natural Science

   Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)

   4) How a " Mathematical" Psychology May Be Realized in Practice

   It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)

   5) The Rights of Psychology as Science

   "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,

   6) The Study of Animal Psychology

   The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)

   7) The Behaviorist's Formulation

   The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)

   8) Man Is a Microcosm

   According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)

   9) Brief Overview of Psychology's History

   At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.

   In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.

   The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.

   Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)

    10) Psychological Research Is Not Building toward Systematic Clarity

   As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)

    11) Psychology as a Scientific Discipline

   The subject matter of psychology is as old as reﬂection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology
14 physics

1. n физика

solid-state physics — физика твёрдого тела

marine physics — физика моря

ABC of physics — основы физики

plasma physics — физика плазмы

atomic physics — атомная физика

fluid physics — физика жидкостей

2. n учебник физики

statistical physics — статистическая физика

the fundamentals of physics — основы физики

theoretical physics — теоретическая физика

high energy physics — физика высоких энергий

mathematical physics — математическая физика

3. n уст. натурфилософия

Синонимический ряд:

1. cures (noun) cures; medicaments; medications; medicines; nostrums; remedies

2. nature (noun) fission; nature

3. science (noun) aerodynamics; applied mathematics; astrophysics; mechanics; natural philosophy; nuclear physics; science; science of matter and motion; thermodynamics

English-Russian base dictionary > physics
15 Henry, Joseph

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Telecommunications

[br]

b. 17 December 1797 Albany, New York, USA

d. 13 May 1878 Washington, DC, USA

[br]

American scientist after whom the unit of inductance is named.

[br]

Sent to stay with relatives at the age of 6 because of the illness of his father, when the latter died in 1811 Henry was apprenticed to a silversmith and then turned to the stage. Whilst he was ill himself, a book on science fired his interest and he began studying at Albany Academy, working as a tutor to finance his studies. Initially intending to pursue medicine, he then spent some time as a surveyor before becoming Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Albany Academy in 1826. There he became interested in the improvement of electromagnets and discovered that the use of an increased number of turns of wire round the core greatly increased their power; by 1831 he was able to supply to Yale a magnet capable of lifting almost a ton weight. During this time he also discovered the principles of magnetic induction and self-inductance. In the same year he made, but did not patent, a cable telegraph system capable of working over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km). It was at this time, too, that he found that adiabatic expansion of gases led to their sudden cooling, thus paving the way for the development of refrigerators. For this he was recommended for, but never received, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Five years later he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at New Jersey College (later Princeton University), where he deduced the laws governing the operation of transformers and observed that changes in magnetic flux induced electric currents in conductors. Later he also observed that spark discharges caused electrical effects at a distance. He therefore came close to the discovery of radio waves. In 1836 he was granted a year's leave of absence and travelled to Europe, where he was able to meet Michael Faraday. It was with his help that in 1844 Samuel Morse set up the first patented electric telegraph, but, sadly, the latter seems to have reaped all the credit and financial rewards. In 1846 he became the first secretary of the Washington Smithsonian Institute and did much to develop government support for scientific research. As a result of his efforts some 500 telegraph stations across the country were equipped with meteorological equipment to supply weather information by telegraph to a central location, a facility that eventually became the US National Weather Bureau. From 1852 he was a member of the Lighthouse Board, contributing to improvements in lighting and sound warning systems and becoming its chairman in 1871. During the Civil War he was a technical advisor to President Lincoln. He was a founder of the National Academy of Science and served as its President for eleven years.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

President, American Association for the Advancement of Science 1849. President, National Academy of Science 1893–1904. In 1893, to honour his work on induction, the International Congress of Electricians adopted the henry as the unit of inductance.

Bibliography

1824. "On the chemical and mechanical effects of steam". 1825. "The production of cold by the rarefaction of air".

1832, "On the production of currents \& sparks of electricity \& magnetism", American

Journal of Science 22:403.

"Theory of the so-called imponderables", Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 6:84.

Further Reading

Smithsonian Institution, 1886, Joseph Henry, Scientific Writings, Washington DC.

KF

Biographical history of technology > Henry, Joseph
16 Knowledge

   1) To Exist Is to Be Perceived

   It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)

   2) Abstract Science or Demonstration Is a More Perfect Species of Knowledge

   It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.

   But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reﬂection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)

   3) Knowledge Derives from Two Fundamental Sources of the Mind

   Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).

   Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])

   4) The Means by Which Metaphysics Can Be Perfected as a Science

   Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....

   This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)

   5) Knowledge Is Only Real in the Form of System

   Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)

   6) Knowledge, Action, and Evaluation Are Interconnected

   Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)

   7) The Evolution of Knowledge

   "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.

   Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge
17 Logic

   1) The Science of Logic Finds Ordinary Language to Be an Obstacle

   My initial step... was to attempt to reduce the concept of ordering in a sequence to that of logical consequence, so as to proceed from there to the concept of number. To prevent anything intuitive from penetrating here unnoticed, I had to bend every effort to keep the chain of inference free of gaps. In attempting to comply with this requirement in the strictest possible way, I found the inadequacy of language to be an obstacle. (Frege, 1972, p. 104)

   2) Logic Is a Microscope

   I believe I can make the relation of my 'conceptual notation' to ordinary language clearest if I compare it to the relation of the microscope to the eye. The latter, because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate.... Similarly, this 'conceptual notation' is devised for particular scientific purposes; and therefore one may not condemn it because it is useless for other purposes. (Frege, 1972, pp. 104-105)

   3) Logic Carries on an Unceasing Struggle with Psychology

   To sum up brieﬂy, it is the business of the logician to conduct an unceasing struggle against psychology and those parts of language and grammar which fail to give untrammeled expression to what is logical. He does not have to answer the question: How does thinking normally take place in human beings? What course does it naturally follow in the human mind? What is natural to one person may well be unnatural to another. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)

   4) Logic Should Replace the Ordinary Language of Everyday Discourse

   We are very dependent on external aids in our thinking, and there is no doubt that the language of everyday life-so far, at least, as a certain area of discourse is concerned-had first to be replaced by a more sophisticated instrument, before certain distinctions could be noticed. But so far the academic world has, for the most part, disdained to master this instrument. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)

   5) Logic Is Unnatural

   There is no reproach the logician need fear less than the reproach that his way of formulating things is unnatural.... If we were to heed those who object that logic is unnatural, we would run the risk of becoming embroiled in interminable disputes about what is natural, disputes which are quite incapable of being resolved within the province of logic. (Frege, 1979, p. 128)

   6) The Significance of " Baby Logic" for Linguistics

   [L]inguists will be forced, internally as it were, to come to grips with the results of modern logic. Indeed, this is apparently already happening to some extent. By "logic" is not meant here recursive function-theory, California model-theory, constructive proof-theory, or even axiomatic settheory. Such areas may or may not be useful for linguistics. Rather under "logic" are included our good old friends, the homely locutions "and," "or," "if-then," "if and only if," "not," "for all x," "for some x," and "is identical with," plus the calculus of individuals, event-logic, syntax, denotational semantics, and... various parts of pragmatics.... It is to these that the linguist can most profitably turn for help. These are his tools. And they are "clean tools," to borrow a phrase of the late J. L. Austin in another context, in fact, the only really clean ones we have, so that we might as well use them as much as we can. But they constitute only what may be called "baby logic." Baby logic is to the linguist what "baby mathematics" (in the phrase of Murray Gell-Mann) is to the theoretical physicist-very elementary but indispensable domains of theory in both cases. (Martin, 1969, pp. 261-262)

   7) The Existence of a Mental Logic Denied

   There appears to be no branch of deductive inference that requires us to assume the existence of a mental logic in order to do justice to the psychological phenomena. To be logical, an individual requires, not formal rules of inference, but a tacit knowledge of the fundamental semantic principle governing any inference; a deduction is valid provided that there is no way of interpreting the premises correctly that is inconsistent with the conclusion. Logic provides a systematic method for searching for such counter-examples. The empirical evidence suggests that ordinary individuals possess no such methods. (Johnson-Laird, quoted in Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 130)

   8) The Fundamental Paradox of Logic

   The fundamental paradox of logic [that "there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves" (Russell to Frege, 16 June 1902, in van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 125)] is with us still, bequeathed by Russell-by way of philosophy, mathematics, and even computer science-to the whole of twentieth-century thought. Twentieth-century philosophy would begin not with a foundation for logic, as Russell had hoped in 1900, but with the discovery in 1901 that no such foundation can be laid. (Everdell, 1997, p. 184)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logic
18 aerodynamics

n аэродинамика

rarefied aerodynamics — аэродинамика разреженного газа

perfect-gas aerodynamics — аэродинамика идеального газа

high-speed aerodynamics — аэродинамика больших скоростей

vortex-flow aerodynamics — аэродинамика вихревых течений

subsonic aerodynamics — аэродинамика дозвуковых скоростей

Синонимический ряд:

science (noun) applied mathematics; astrophysics; mechanics; natural philosophy; nuclear physics; physics; science; science of matter and motion; thermodynamics

English-Russian base dictionary > aerodynamics
19 applied mathematics

прикладная математика

pure mathematics — чистая математика

higher mathematics — высшая математика

abstract mathematics — чистая математика

lesson in mathematics — урок математики

the study of mathematics — изучение математики

Синонимический ряд:

science (noun) aerodynamics; astrophysics; mechanics; natural philosophy; nuclear physics; physics; science; science of matter and motion; thermodynamics

English-Russian base dictionary > applied mathematics
20 astrophysics

n употр. с гл. в ед. и мн. ч. астрофизика

Синонимический ряд:

science (noun) aerodynamics; applied mathematics; mechanics; natural philosophy; nuclear physics; physics; science; science of matter and motion; thermodynamics

English-Russian base dictionary > astrophysics

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